Chapter 9. Spacecraft Classification
Robotic spacecraft are specially designed and constructed systems that can function in specific hostile environments. Their complexity and capabilities vary greatly and their purposes are diverse. To make some sense of all these variables, this chapter arbitrarily designates eight broad classes of robotic spacecraft according to the missions the spacecraft are intended to perform: We illustrate these eight classes by offering one prime example of each, pictured on this page and some additional linked examples. Be sure to select and read at least each prime example, plus an additional link or two. The JPL public website has an up-to-date listing of all past, current, future and proposed JPL robotic spacecraft missions. Spacecraft that carry human occupants are not considered here. (1) Flyby Spacecraft
Our prime example of the flyby spacecraft category is the pair of Voyager spacecraft, which conducted encounters in the Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune systems. Click the Voyager image for details of the twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft. Other examples of flyby spacecraft include:
(2) Orbiter Spacecraft
Our prime example of the orbiter spacecraft category is Galileo which entered orbit about Jupiter in 1995 to carry out a highly successful study of the Jovian system. Click the Galileo image for details of the Galileo spacecraft. Other examples of orbiter spacecraft include:
(3) Atmospheric Spacecraft
Typically, atmospheric spacecraft are carried to their destination by another spacecraft. Galileo carried its atmospheric probe on an impact trajectory with Jupiter in 1995 and increased its spin rate to stabilize the probe's attitude for atmospheric entry. After probe release Galileo maneuvered to change from an impact trajectory to a Jupiter Orbit Insertion trajectory. An aeroshell protected the probe from the thousands of degrees of heat created by atmospheric compression during atmospheric entry, then parachutes deployed after the aeroshell was jettisoned. The probe completed its mission on battery power, and the orbiter relayed the data to Earth. The Pioneer 13 Venus Multiprobe Mission deployed four atmospheric probes that returned data directly to Earth during descent into the Venusian atmosphere in 1978. Balloon packages are atmospheric probes designed for suspension from a buoyant gas bag to float and travel with the wind. The Soviet Vega 1 and Vega 2 missions to Comet Halley in 1986 deployed atmospheric balloons in Venus' atmosphere en route to the comet. DSN tracked the instrumented balloons to investigate winds in the Venusian atmosphere. (The Vega missions also deployed Venus landers.) While not currently funded, informal plans for other kinds of atmospheric spacecraft include battery powered instrumented airplanes and balloons for investigations in the atmospheres of Mars and Titan. Our prime example of the atmospheric spacecraft category is Huygens, which was carried to Saturn's moon Titan by the Cassini spacecraft. Click the Huygens image for details of the Huygens spacecraft. Other examples of atmospheric spacecraft include:
(4) Lander Spacecraft
Our prime example of the lander spacecraft category is Mars Pathfinder. Click the Pathfinder image for details of the Pathfinder spacecraft. Other examples of lander spacecraft include: (5) Penetrator Spacecraft
Our prime example of a penetrator spacecraft is the Deep Impact spacecraft, which was launched January 12, 2005. Targeting the comet 9P/Tempel, Deep Impact's impactor module successfully collided with the comet's nucleus, releasing a plume that was observed by the spacecraft itself. Other examples of penetrator spacecraft include:
(6) Rover Spacecraft
Our prime example of a rover spacecraft the famous Sojourner Rover, shown here in an image from the surface of Mars. Click the Sojourner image for details of the rover spacecraft. Other examples of rover spacecraft include: (7) Observatory Spacecraft
NASA's Great Observatories program studies the universe at wavelengths from infra-red to gamma-rays. The program includes four Observatory Spacecraft: the familiar Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the Chandra X-Ray Observatory (CXO, previously known as AXAF), the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), and the Spitzer Space Telescope (previously known as SIRTF). The HST is still operating as of early 2013. GRO has completed its mission and was de-orbited in June 2000. CXO was launched in July 1999 and continues to operate. SIRTF launched in January 2003 and is currently operating. In the coming decades many new kinds of observatory spacecraft will be deployed to take advantage of the tremendous gains available from operating in space. Our prime example of an observatory spacecraft is the Spitzer Space Infrared Telescope Facility. Click the SIRTF image for details of the observatory spacecraft. Other examples of observatory spacecraft include:
(8) Communications & Navigation Spacecraft
In the future, communications and navigation spacecraft may be deployed at Mars, Venus, or other planets, dedicated to communications with orbiters, rovers, penetrators, and atmospheric spacecraft operating in their vicinity. This task is currently carried out to some extent by various orbiter spacecraft that are also equipped for limited communications relay. The purpose of dedicated Mars communications orbiters would be to augment the Deep Space Network's capabilities to communicate with the resident spacecraft. None have been funded or developed as of early 2013. This concept is revisited in Chapter 18. The communications spacecraft example offered here is NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, TDRSS. NASA missions supported by the system include the Hubble Telescope, the Space Shuttle, GRO, Landsat, TOPEX, JASON, and EUVE and the International Space Station. Click the TDRSS image for details of this communications spacecraft. Other examples of communications and navigation spacecraft include:
For Further ReferenceFollowing is a list of links to brief illustrated descriptions of the spacecraft missions mentioned above:
The JPL website also describes all JPL's current, future, proposed, and past missions, as well as a complete alphabetical listing of them.
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| SKIP QUIZ |
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SECTION I ENVIRONMENT 1 The Solar System 2 Reference Systems 3 Gravity & Mechanics 4 Trajectories 5 Planetary Orbits 6 Electromagnetics
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SECTION II FLIGHT PROJECTS 7 Mission Inception 8 Experiments 9 S/C Classification 10 Telecommunications 11 Onboard Systems 12 Science Instruments 13 Navigation
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SECTION III FLIGHT OPERATIONS 14 Launch 15 Cruise 16 Encounter 17 Extended Operations 18 Deep Space Network |
